Sport, megaesemények, önkéntesek és az egyedi élmény faktor

Az önkéntesek szerepe az arénaélmény létrehozásában a megasportesemények során

Authors

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.14267/VEZTUD.2022.01.02

Keywords:

event marketing, mega-events, stadium experience, volunteers, implicit associations test (IAT), neuromarketing

Abstract

In the 21st century, sport plays an integral part of our lives. Through the promise of a once-in-a-lifetime experience, megaevents such as the Olympics, World Championships or European Championships are capable of enhancing the appeal, awareness and thus the profitability of a tourism destination. The role of event volunteers has received little attention so far in terms of academic research; however, their enthusiasm and the free workforce they represent have proved to beinvaluable in the ever-growing event industry. The aim of this study is to examine the possible connection between volunteers’ performance and the unique visitor experience using implicit and explicit measures. The authors’ findings suggest that the impressions gained through the interactions with frontline employees like volunteers have a strong impact on the stadium experience. Additionally, the performance of event volunteers (appearance, passion, problem solving) is crucial in ensuring that the event visitors are receiving adequate value propositions.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biographies

Norbert Griszbacher, Corvinus University of Budapest

Research Assistant

Ákos Varga, Corvinus University of Budapest

Associate Professor

Ildikó Kemény, Corvinus University of Budapest

Associate Professor

References

Andranovich, G., Burbank, M. J., & Heying, C. H. (2001). Olympic cities: Lessons learned from mega-event politics. Journal of Urban Affairs, 23(2), 113-131. https://doi.org/10.1111/0735-2166.00079

András, K. (2003). A sport és az üzlet kapcsolata – elméleti alapok. 34. sz. Műhelytanulmány. Budapest: Budapesti Közgazdaságtudományi és Államigazgatási Egyetem, Vállalatgazdaságtan Tanszék. http://edok.lib.uni-corvinus.hu/61/1/Andr%C3%A1s34.pdf

Anholt, S. (2010). Places: Identity, Image and Reputation. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.

Banaji, M. R. (2001). Implicit attitudes can be measured. In H. L. Roediger, I. N. Nairne, & A. M. Suprenant (Eds.), The nature of remembering: Essays in honor of Robert G. Crowder (pp. 117–149). Washington DC, US: American Psychological Association.

Bar-Anan, Y., & Nosek, B. A. (2014). A comparative investigation of seven indirect attitude measures. Behavior Research Methods, 46(3), 668-688. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-013-0410-6

BCW. (2021). Ranking of Sports Cities. https://bcw-sport.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Report-BCW-Ranking-of-Sports-Cities-2021-FINAL.pdf

Biernacki, P., & Waldorf, D. (1981). Snowball Sampling: Problems and Techniques of Chain Referral Sampling. Sociological Methods & Research, 10(2), 141-163. https://doi.org/10.1177/004912418101000205

Brunel, F. F., Tietje, B. C., & Greenwald, A. G. (2004). Is the Implicit Association Test a Valid and Valuable Measure of Implicit Consumer Social Cognition? Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14(4), 385-404. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327663jcp1404_8

Calder B. J., Hollebeek L. D., & Malthouse, E. C. (2018). Creating Stronger Brands Through Consumer Experience and Engagement. In R. Palmatier, V. Kumar & C. Harmeling (Eds.), Customer Engagement Marketing (pp. 221-242). London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.

Carpenter, T., Pogacar, R., Pullig, C., Kouril, M., Aguilar, S., LaBouff, J., Isenberg, N., & Chakroff, A. (2019). Survey-software implicit association tests: A methodological and empirical analysis. Behavior Research Methods, 51(1), 2194-2208. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-019-01293-3

Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155-159. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.112.1.155

Crompton, J. (2004). Beyond economic impact: An alternative rationale for the subsidy of major league sports facilities. Journal of Sports Management, 18(1), 40-58. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.18.1.40

Cudeck, R., & O’Dell, L. L. (1994). Applications of standard error estimates in unrestricted factor analysis: Significance tests for factor loadings and correlations. Psychological Bulletin, 115(1), 475-487. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.115.3.475

Cuskelly, G., Hoye, R., & Auld, C. (2006). Working with volunteers in sport. London, UK: Routledge.

Dasgupta, N., & Greenwald, A. G. (2001). On the malleability of automatic attitudes: Combating automatic prejudice with images of admired and disliked individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(5), 800-814. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.800

Doherty, A. (2009). The volunteer legacy of a major sport event. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 1(3), 185-207. https://doi.org/10.1080/19407960903204356

Eisinger, P. (2000). The Politics of Bread and Circuses: Building the City for the Visitor Class. Urban Affairs Review, 35(3), 316-333. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F107808740003500302

Ericson, G. S., & Kushner, R. J. (1999). Public event networks: an application of network theory to sport events. European Journal of Marketing, 33(3/4), 348-364. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090569910253189

Funk, D. (2008). Consumer behaviour in sport and events. London, UK: Routledge.

Gawronski, B., & De Houwer, J. (2014). Implicit measures in social and personality psychology. In H. Reis & C. Judd (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (pp. 283–310). New York, US: Cambridge University Press.

Getz, D. (2005). Event Management and Event Tourism. New York, US: Cognizant Communications.

Getz, D., Andersson, T., & Larson, M. (2007). Festival Stakeholder Roles: Concepts and Case Studies. Event Management, 10(2/3), 103-122. https://doi.org/10.3727/152599507780676689

Gratton, C., & Henry, I. (Eds.) (2001). Sport in the city: the role of sport in economic and social Regeneration. London, UK: Routledge.

Gratton, C., & Preuss, H. (2008). Maximizing Olympic Impacts by Building Up Legacies. The International Journal of the History of Sport, 25(14), 1922-1938. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523360802439023

Gratton, C., Shibli, S., & Coleman, R. (2005). The economics of sport tourism at major sports events. In J. Higham (Ed.), Sport Tourism Destinations: Issues, Opportunities and Analysis (pp. 233–259). Oxford, UK: Elsevier.

Gregg, A. P. (2008). The Implicit Association Test: oracle of the unconscious or deceiver of the unwitting? The Psychologist, 21(9), 762-766. https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-21/edition-9/oracle-unconscious-or-deceiver-unwitting

Gregg, A. P., Klymowsky, J., Owens, D., & Perryman, A. (2013). Let their Fingers do the Talking? Using the Implicit Association Test in Market Research. International Journal of Market Research, 55(4), 487-503. https://doi.org/10.2501/ijmr-2013-013

Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, Self-esteem and Stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102(1), 4-27. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.102.1.4

Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R., Rudman, L. A., Farnham, S. D., Mellott, N., & Mellott, D. (2003). Az implicit attitűdök, a sztereotípiák és az énfogalom egységes elmélete. In M. R. Banaji (Eds.), Rejtőzködő attitűdök és sztereotípiák (pp. 423-490). Budapest: Osiris Kiadó.

Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: the implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1464-1480. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.74.6.1464

Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Understanding and using the implicit association test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 197-216. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.197

Greenwald, A. G., Poehlman, T. A., Uhlmann, E. L., & Banaji, M. R. (2009). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(1), 17-41. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015575

Grix, J., & Houlihan, B. (2014). Sports Mega-Events as Part of a Nation’s Soft Power Strategy: The Cases of Germany (2006) and the UK (2012). The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 16(4), 572– 596. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-856X.12017

Gyömörei, T. (2015). Magán és közfinanszírozás a sportban. In P. Ács (Ed.), Sport és Gazdaság (pp. 93-153.). Pécs: Pécsi Tudományegyetem Egészségtudományi Kar.

Hall, C. M. (1992). Hallmark Tourist Events: Impact, Management and Planning. London, UK: Belhaven Press.

Hallmann, K., & Breuer, C. (2010). Image fit between sport events and their hosting destinations from an active sport tourist perspective and its impact on future behavior. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 15(3), 215-237. https://doi.org/10.1080/14775085.2010.513147

Hofmann, W., Gawronski, B., Gschwendner, T., Le, H., & Schmitt, M. (2005). A Meta-Analysis on the Correlation Between the Implicit Association Test and Explicit Self-Report Measures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(10), 1369–1385. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205275613

Holmes, K. (2003). Volunteers in the heritage sector: A neglected audience?. International Journal of Heritage Studies, 9(4), 341-355. https://doi.org/10.1080/1352725022000155072

Holmes, K., & Edwards, D. (2008). Volunteers as Hosts and Guests in Museums. In K.D. Lyons & S. Wearing (Eds.), Journeys of discovery in volunteer tourism: International case study perspectives (pp. 155 –165). Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing.

Horbel, C., Popp, B., Woratschek, H., & Wilson, B. (2016). How context shapes value co-creation: spectator experience of sport events. The Service Industries Journal, 36(11/12), 510-531. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2016.1255730

Howard, D. R., & Crompton, J. L. (2018). Financing Sport. Morgantown, WV, US: FiT Publishing.

Jago, L., Chalip, L., Brown, G., Mules, T., & Ali, S. (2003). Building Events Into Destination Branding: Insights From Experts. Event Management, 8(1), 3-14. https://doi.org/10.3727/152599503108751658

Johnson, T. P. (2014). Snowball Sampling: Introduction. In N. Balakrishnan, T. Colton, B. Everitt, W. Piegorsch, F. Ruggeri, & J. L. Teugels (Eds.), Wiley StatsRef: Statistics Reference Online. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118445112.stat05720

Kaplanidou, K., & Vogt, C. (2007). The interrelationship between sport event and destination image and sport tourists’ behaviours, Journal of Sport & Tourism, 12(3/4), 183-206. https://doi.org/10.1080/14775080701736932

Kemény, I., Simon, J., Berezvai, Z., & Kun, Zs. (2021). Marketingkutatás kvantitatív módszerei. Segédanyag SPSS program használatához. Budapesti Corvinus Egyetem Marketing Intézet, Budapest.

Kemp, S. (2002). The hidden workforce: Volunteers’ learning in the olympics. Journal of European Industrial Training, 26(2), 109-116. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090590210421987

Kim, H., Choe, Y., Kim, D., & Kim, J. J. (2019). For Sustainable Benefits and Legacies of Mega-Events: A Case Study of the 2018 PyeongChang Winter Olympics from the Perspective of the Volunteer Co-Creators. Sustainability, 11(9), 2473-2488. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11092473

Kiss, Zs. (2004). A lengyel paraszt Magyarországon. Szociológiai Szemle, 4(1), 129–141.

Ko, Y. J., Zhang, J., Cattani, K., & Pastore, D. (2011). Assessment of event performance in major spectator sport. Managing Service Performance, 21(3), 304-322. https://doi.org/10.1108/09604521111127983

Kozma, G., Teperics, K., & Radics, Zs. (2014). The changing role of sports in urban development: A case study of Debrecen (Hungary). International Journal of the History of Sport, 31(9), 1118–1132. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2013.865119

Kulcsár, N. (2015). A fogyasztói érték és az élmény kontextusa a turisztikai szakirodalomban. Vezetéstudomány, 46(3), 18-25. https://doi.org/10.14267/VEZTUD.2015.03.02

LaSalle, D., & Britton, T. A. (2003). Priceless: turning ordinary products into extraordinary experiences. Boston, US: Harvard Business School Press

Lee, C.-K., Reisinger, Y., Kim, J. M., Yoon, M., & Ross-S. D. (2014). The influence of volunteer motivation on satisfaction, attitudes, and support for a megaevent. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 40(1), 37-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2014.03.003

Lee, N., Broderick, A.J., & Chamberlain, L. (2007). What is “neuromarketing”? A discussion and agenda for future research. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 63(2), 199-204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2006.03.007

Lee, S., Lee, H. J., Seo, W. J., & Green, C. (2012). A New Approach to Stadium Experience: The Dynamics of the Sensoryscape, Social Interaction, and Sense of Home. Journal of Sport Management, 26(6), 490-505. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.26.6.490

Lee, Y., Kim, M.-L., Koo, J., & Won, H.-J. (2018). Sport volunteer service performance, image formation, and service encounters. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship, 20(2), 307-320. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSMS-05-2018-0047

Lockstone, L., & Baum, T. (2009). The public face of event volunteering at the 2006 Commonwealth Games: The media perspective. Managing Leisure, 14(1), 38-56. https://doi.org/10.1080/13606710802551254

Magdalinski, T., & Nauright, J. (2004). Commercialization of the modern Olympic Games. In T. Slack (Eds.), The Commercialization of Sport (pp. 185–204). Lon- don, UK: Routledge.

Maison, D., Greenwald, A. G., & Bruin, R. H. (2001). The Implicit Association Test as a Measure of Consumer Attitudes. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 32(1), 61-69.

Maison, D., Greenwald, A. G., & Bruin, R. H. (2004). Predictive Validity of the Implicit Association Test in Studies of Brands, Consumer Attitudes, and Behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 14(4), 405-415. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327663jcp1404_9

Markovits, A. S., & Rensmann, L. (2010). Gaming the world: How sports are reshaping global politics and culture. Princeton (New Jersey), US: Princeton University Press.

Mullin, B., Hardy, S., & Sutton, W. (2007). Sport marketing. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M., & Greenwald, A. G. (2003). Implicit csoportattitűdök és sztereotípiák gyűjtése egy demonstrációs weblapról. In M. R. Banaji (Eds.), Rejtőzködő attitűdök és sztereotípiák (pp.336–377). Budapest: Osiris Kiadó.

Nosek, B. A., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2005). Understanding and using the implicit association test: II. Method variables and construct validity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(2), 166-180. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271418

Nosek, B. A., Hawkins, C. B., & Frazier, R. S. (2011). Implicit social cognition: from measures to mechanisms. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(4), 152-159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2011.01.005

Olsson, A. K. (2010). A tourist attraction’s members: Their motivations, relations and roles. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 10(4), 411–429. https://doi.org/10.1080/15022250.2010.520858

Olsson, A. K., Therkelsen, A., & Mossberg, L. (2013). Making an effort for free – volunteers’ roles in destination-based storytelling. Current Issues in Tourism, 19(7), 659-679. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2013.784242

Osti, L., Disegna, M., & Brida, J. G. (2012). Repeat visits and intentions to revisit a sporting event and its nearby destinations. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 18(1), 31-42. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1356766711428803

Pine, B. J. II., & Gilmore, J. H. (1998). Welcome to the experience economy. Harvard Business Review, 76(1), 97-105.

Plassmann, H., Venkatraman, V., Huettel, S., & Yoon, C. (2015). Consumer Neuroscience: Applications, Challenges, and Possible Solutions. Journal of Marketing Research, 52(4), 427-435. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmr.14.0048

PwC. (2020). PwC Sport Felmérés 2020 Sportipar: a rendszer újraindítása.

Ramsøy, T. Z. (2015). Introduction to Neuromarketing & Consumer Neuroscience. Rørvig, DK: Neurons Inc ApS.

Rein, I., & Shields, B. (2007). Place branding sports: Strategies for differentiating emerging, transitional, negatively viewed and newly industrialised nations. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 3(1), 73-85. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.pb.6000049

Roche, M. (2000). Megaevents and Modernity: Olympics and Expos in the Growth of Global Culture. London, UK: Taylor & Francis.

Rundh, B., & Gottfridsson, P. (2015). Delivering sports events: the arena concept in sports from a network perspective. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 30(7), 785-794. https://doi.org/10.1108/JBIM-06-2013-0131

Sajtos, L., & Mitev, A. (2007). SPSS kutatási és adatelemzési kézikönyv. Budapest: Alinea Kiadó.

Schmitt, T. A., & Sass, D. A. (2011). Rotation Criteria and Hypothesis Testing for Exploratory Factor Analysis: Implications for Factor Pattern Loadings and Interfactor Correlations. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 71(1), 95-113. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164410387348

Schmitt, B., Joško, B. J., & Zarantonello, L. (2015). From experiential psychology to consumer experience. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 25(1), 166-171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2014.09.001

SGK. (2020). „Sport – Érték” kutatás 2020. Budapesti Corvinus Egyetem Vállalatgazdaságtani Intézet, Budapest.

Smith, A. C. T., & Stewart, B. (2007). The Travelling Fan: Understanding the Mechanisms of Sport Fan Consumption in a Sport Tourism Setting. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 12(3/4), 155-181. https://doi.org/10.1080/14775080701736924

Somogyi, M., & Bernáth, L. (2014). A rassz implicit asszociációs teszt interneten gyűjtött adatainak elemzése magyar mintán. Alkalmazott Pszichológia, 14(1), 73–92. http://ap.elte.hu/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/APA_2014_1_Somogyi_Bernath.pdf

Stanislaw, H., & Todorov, N. (1999). Calculation of signal detection theory measures. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 31(1), 137-149. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03207704

Szabó, É., Németh, R., & Náfrádi, L. (2013). A Semantic Selection Test – SST- bemutatása. Alkalmazott Pszichológia, 13(2), 59-74. http://ap.elte.hu/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/APA_2013_2_SZABO_ETAL_ sst.pdf

Szatmári, Z. (főszerk.) (2009). Sport, életmód, egészség. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.

Szenyéri, V., Michalkó, G., & Fotiadis, A. (2019). A FINA (2017) világbajnokság önkénteseinek szerepe Budapest sportturizmusában. Földrajzi Közlemények, 143(1), 12-23. https://doi.org/10.32643/fk.143.1.2

Teixeira, J. G., Patrício, L., Nunes, N., Nóbrega, L., Fisk, R., & Constantine, L. (2012). Customer experience modeling: From customer experience to ser- vice design. Journal of Service Management, 23(3), 362-376. https://doi.org/10.1108/09564231211248453

Tsiotsou, R. H. (2016). A service ecosystem experience-based framework for sport marketing. The Service Industries Journal, 36(11/12), 478-509. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2016.1255731

Tsuji, Y., Bennett, G., & Zhang, J. (2007). Consumer satisfaction with an action sports event. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 16(4), 199-208.

Tynan, C., & McKechnie, S. (2009). Experience marketing: a review and reassessment. Journal of Marketing Management, 25(5/6), 501-517. https://doi.org/10.1362/026725709X461821

Varga, Á. (2016). Neuromarketing, a marketingkutatás új iránya. Vezetéstudomány, 47(9), 55-63. https://doi.org/10.14267/veztud.2016.09.05

Varga, Á. (2018). Fogyasztói neurotudomány, neuromarketing és egyéb boszorkányságok. In MMDC terelő - Tanulmányok a marketing-, média- és designkommunikáció területéről (pp. 75- 82). Budapesti Corvinus Egyetem, Budapest.

Vassiliadis, C. A., & Fotiadis, A. (2016). Managing Sport Tourism Experiences: Blueprinting Service Encounters. In M. Sotiriadis, & D. Gursoy (Eds.), The Hand- book of Managing and Marketing Tourism Experiences (pp. 195-215). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing.

Verhoef, P. C., Lemon, K. N., Parasuraman, A., Roggeveen, A., Tsiros, M., & Schlesinger, L. A. (2009). Customer experience creation: determinants, dynamics and management strategies. Journal of Retailing, 85(1), 31-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2008.11.001

Westerbeek, H. M., & Shilbury, D. (1999). Increasing the focus on “place” in the marketing mix for facility dependent sport services. Sport Management Review, 2(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1441-3523(99)70087-2

Downloads

Published

2022-01-16

How to Cite

Griszbacher, N., Varga, Ákos, & Kemény, I. (2022). Sport, megaesemények, önkéntesek és az egyedi élmény faktor: Az önkéntesek szerepe az arénaélmény létrehozásában a megasportesemények során. Vezetéstudomány Budapest Management Review, 53(1), 15–28. https://doi.org/10.14267/VEZTUD.2022.01.02

Issue

Section

Articles